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Above: Raymond Concrete Pile Company's Gow Division's SPT rig is featured in a Willys Overland advertisement for the Jeep during the 1950's. The Jeep line, of course, is now manufactured by Chrysler.

Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems

W. Ed Wightman, Frank Jalinoos, Philip Sirles and Kanaan Hanna
FHWA Contract DTFH68-02-P-00083
September 2003

This document is designed to provide highway engineers with a basic knowledge of geophysics and nondestructive test (NDT) methods for solving specific transportation related problems. The document is not intended to make engineers experts in the field of geophysics, but rather to provide them with tools that will assist them in the use of suitable geophysical and NDT techniques to evaluate problems for design, planning, construction, or remediation efforts.

A table is included to provide the user with a simplified approach of suggested method(s) for various highway engineering problems. In this document, the term NDT is used to refer to condition evaluation of engineered structures. Condition evaluation includes integrity assessment for defects and corrosion, and the determination of unknown geometry, such as unknown foundation depths or extent of foundations. A broad range of practical methods are presented, including most traditional geophysical methods. These have been adapted to provide solutions more specific to a variety of engineering problems.

The document is divided into two parts. The first part is problem oriented and provides a range of geophysical imaging and NDT methods that can be used to solve particular highway-related problems. The second part provides more comprehensive discussions of the geophysical methods and theory.

Earth Manual

U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation
Part I, Third Edition
1998

The manual provides current technical information on the field and laboratory investigations and construction control of soils used as foundations and materials for dams, canals, and many other types of structures built for Reclamation projects in the United States of America. It contains both standardized procedures that have been found desirable for securing uniform results throughout the Bureau, and general guidelines intended to assist but not to substitute for engineering judgment.

• Chapter I describes the Unified Soil Classification System developed jointly by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army, from the system proposed by Professor A. Casagrande of Harvard University, and discusses the various properties of soils relating to engineering uses.
• Investigations of soils are covered in chapter II which describes the various stages of investigation corresponding to the stages of development of the Bureau projects, and gives technical information necessary for planning and executing explorations and for presenting the results.
• Chapter III presents information on the control of construction from the soils standpoint, for both foundation treatment and compaction control of fills. In addition to a general treatment of the subject applicable to all types of earthwork, separate sections are devoted to problems of rolled earth dams, canals, and miscellaneous construction features. For each of these, information on design features and usual specifications provisions are given to provide control personnel with a background to assist in implementing the recommended control techniques.

The appendix contains detailed procedures for sampling, classification, and field and laboratory testing of soils. Instructions for installing and obtaining information from instruments that measure pore-water pressures and displacements within and adjacent to earth embankments are also included. A tabulation of conversion factors commonly used in earth construction is included at the end of the appendix.

Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties

Note: this book is in print. Click on the cover image before or here for more information or to order.

FHWA-IF-02-034
Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 5
April 2002

This document presents state-of-the-practice information on the evaluation of soil and rock properties for geotechnical design applications. This document addresses the entire range of materials potentially encountered in highway engineering practice, from soft clay to intact rock and variations of materials that fall between these two extremes.

Information is presented on parameters measured, evaluation of data quality, and interpretation of properties for conventional soil and rock laboratory testing, as well as in situ devices such as field vane testing, cone penetration testing, dilatometer, pressuremeter, and borehole jack. This document provides the design engineer with information that can be used to develop a rationale for accepting or rejecting data and for resolving inconsistencies between data provided by different laboratories and field tests.

This document also includes information on: (1) the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Personal Data Assistance devices for the collection and interpretation of subsurface information; (2) quantitative measures for evaluating disturbance of laboratory soil samples; and (3) the use of measurements from geophysical testing techniques to obtain information on the modulus of soil. Also included are chapters on evaluating properties of special soil materials (e.g., loess, cemented sands, peats and organic soils, etc.) and the use of statistical information in evaluating anomalous data and obtaining design values for soil and rock properties. An appendix of three detailed soil and rock property selection examples is provided which illustrate the application of the methods described in the document.

Geotechnical Investigations

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USACOE EM 1110-1-1084
1 January 2001

Supercedes:

• EM 1110-1-1804, Geotechnical Investigations, 29 February 1984
• EM 1110-1-1906, Soil Sampling, 30 September 1996 (this manual includes a copy of that one)

This manual establishes criteria and presents guidance for geotechnical investigations during the various stages of development for civil and military projects. The manual is intended to be a guide for planning and conducting geotechnical investigations and not a textbook on engineering geology and soils exploration. Actual investigations, in all instances, must be tailored to the individual projects.

Geotechnical investigations are performed to evaluate those geologic, seismologic, and soils conditions that affect the safety, cost effectiveness, design, and execution of a proposed engineering project. Insufficient geotechnical investigations, faulty interpretation of results, or failure to portray results in a clearly understandable manner may contribute to inappropriate designs, delays in construction schedules, costly construction modifications, use of substandard borrow material, environmental damage to the site, postconstruction remedial work, and even failure of a structure and subsequent litigation. Investigations performed to determine the geologic setting of the project include: the geologic, seismologic, and soil conditions that influence selection of the project site; the characteristics of the foundation soils and rocks; geotechnical conditions which influence project safety, design, and construction; critical geomorphic processes; and sources of construction materials.

Laboratory Soils Testing

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NOTE: This book is available in print. Click here or on the image below to order.

Related documents to Laboratory Soil Testing:

• Calibration of Laboratory Soils Testing Equipment, EM 1110-2-1909, 1 December 1970
• Liquid Limit Grooving Tools, EP 1110-1-9, 26 February 1982

USACOE EM 1110-2-1906
20 August 1986

• WATER CONTENT - GENERAL
• UNIT WEIGHTS, VOID RATIO, POROSITY, AND DEGREE OF SATURATION
• LIQUID AND PLASTIC LIMITS
• ONE-POINT LIQUID LIMIT TEST
• SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST
• GRAIN-SIZE ANALYSIS
• COMPACTION TESTS
• COMPACTION TEST FOR EARTH-ROCK MIXTURES
• PERMEABILITY TESTS
• CONSOLIDATION TEST
• SWELL AND SWELL PRESSURE TESTS
• DRAINED (S) DIRECT SHEAR TEST
• DRAINED (S) REPEATED DIRECT SHEAR TEST
• TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS
• CYCLIC TRIAXIAL TESTS
• DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL VOID RATIO
• UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
• MODIFIED PROVIDENCE VIBRATED DENSITY TEST
• PINHOLE EROSION TEST FOR IDENTIFICATION OF DISPERSIVE CLAYS

Manual on Estimating Soil Properties for Foundation Design

EPRI EL-6800
August 1990

This manual provides foundation engineerins with a comprehensive reference on estimating engineering soil parameters from field or laboratory test data. Empirical correlations are used extensively to evaluate soil parameters. The manual describes the most important of these correlations completely and systematically with an emphasis on the correlations of relatively common tests, including those that are seeing increased usage in practice.

Manual on Subsurface Investigations

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FHWA NHI-01-031
July 2001

This manual presents the general state of the practice of subsurface exploration and focuses on the scope and specific elements of typical geotechnical investigation programs for design and construction of highways and related transportation facilities. The manual presents the latest methodologies in the planning, execution, and interpretation of the various exploratory investigation methods, and the development of appropriate soil and rock parameters for engineering applications. It is understood that the procedures discussed in the manual are subject to local variations. It is important, therefore, for the reader to become thoroughly familiar with the local practices as well.

Offshore Soil Mechanics

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Arnold Verruijt
University of Delft, The Netherlands
1994, 2005

This book is an excellent introduction to soil mechanics as it is applied to offshore structures, such as offshore oil platforms. Topics covered include the following:

• Soil Properties
• Theory of Consolidation
• Sea Bed Response to Cyclic Loads
• Cutting Forces in Sand
• Beams on Elastic Foundation
• Axially Loaded Piles
• Development of Pile Plug
• Laterally Loaded Piles
• Pile in Layered Elastic Material
• Waves in Piles
• Gravity Foundations

Rapid Drying Soils with Microwave Ovens

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Kevin J. Gaspard, P.E.
Louisiana Transportation Research Center
LTRC Project No. 99-3GT

Soils are normally dried in either a convection oven or stove. Inspections of field and laboratory moisture content testing indicated that the typical drying durations for a convection oven and stove were, 24 hours and 60 minutes, respectively. The objectives of this study were to determine the accuracy and soil drying duration of microwave ovens. This was accomplished by testing soils with and without additives. The soils were tested with a convection oven (CO), computer controlled microwave oven (CMWO), standard microwave oven (SMWO), and stove. The convection oven was considered to produce the true moisture content and was, therefore, used as a basis for comparison for the results of the other devices. Based on appraisals of the results, the standard microwave oven is the most feasible device to use in drying soils.

Site Investigations

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C. R. I. Clayton, M. C. Matthews and N. E. Simons
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Surrey, England

This book is a complete treatment of site investigations, including the following topics:

• Planning and Procurement
• Description and Classification of Soils and Rocks
• The desk study and walk-over survey
• Subsurface Exploration: Engineering Geophysics
• Subsurface Exploration: Boring, Drilling, Probing and Trial Pitting
• Sampling and Sample Disturbance
• Undisturbed Sampling Techniques
• Laboratory Testing
• In Situ Testing
• Basic Field Instrumentation for Site Investigation

By 1953, Terzaghi stated in connection with site investigation that ‘we have acquired all the knowledge which is needed for a rational interpretation of the observational and experimental data’. The reader may reasonably ask what is to be gained from this book, since techniques are so well established. In reality, since 1950, four main changes have taken place.

1. First, many of the methods introduced before and since have been the object of criticism as a result of differences between predictions and subsequent observations.
2. Secondly, a considerable number of the lessons learnt before 1950 have been forgotten: few U100 samplers in use today are of the standard required by Hvorslev (1949) for undisturbed sampling, and much fieldwork remains unsupervised by engineers.
3. Thirdly, few engineers have an experience or understanding of the techniques of boring and drilling holes for site investigations, and most clients remain unaware of the importance of this part of the work.
4. Finally, recent years have seen the introduction of sophisticated and expensive methods of testing and computer analysis which cannot be sensibly applied to samples and predictions of soil conditions of indeterminate quality.

This is an excellent companion to Verruijt's Soil Mechanics book.

Soils Sampling and Testing Training Guide for Field and Laboratory Technicians on Roadway Construction

Eugene R. Russell and Michael Renk
Kansas State University
Report No. K-TRAN: KSU-96-10
December 1999

This manual has been developed as a training guide for field and laboratory technicians responsible for sampling and testing of soils used in roadway construction. It was completed in conjunction with K-TRAN Project KSU-96-10, entitled “Pilot Study to Determine Personnel Certification and Training.”

The development and implementation of Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) specifications by the Kansas Department of Transportation has been a driving force behind the development of a soils training and certification program. Soils training and certification will increase the knowledge of laboratory, production, and field inspectors. Both the owner agency and the contractor will benefit with an increased number of qualified personnel to perform acceptance and quality control functions. In addition, it is anticipated that this program and its standardized set of core tests will help to achieve certification reciprocity throughout the region. This manual is a guide for training personnel to perform the core soils tests they should understand in order to be certified.

The manual is based on ASTM and AASHTO test methods and procedures. During the 4th Annual FHWA Region 5 & 7 Training and Certification Workshop, a core content of ASTM and AASHTO tests for soil technician training was defined by the Soils Training Development Team. This training manual implements this core content for certification of laboratory soil field inspectors.

Standard Penetration Test

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ETL 1110-1-138
31 March 1988

This letter furnishes information and guidance on the conduct of the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), when its penetration values are used in soil liquefaction evaluations.

In 1958, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) first adopted the “Standard Method for Penetration Test and Spilt-Barrel Sampling of Soils, ASTM D1586 (SPT)”. The SPT has been used routinely in subsurface exploration and soil design, with many engineering relationships between SPT N values and other soil design parameters (such as relative density, angle of internal friction, shear strength, bearing capacity, and soil liquefaction potential) having been developed, However, In spite of the seemingly detailed “standard” method speclfled in ASTM D 1586-84, there still exist many factors which lead to a wide variation In SPT results for a given soil This variation, along with the low degree of repeatability, has caused difficulties in interpreting SPT results and using historical data with confidence. Recent research, especially In the dynamics of the SPT and the field energy measurement of the SPT hammers, have greatly advanced the knowledge of the SPT and, as a result test variations can be minimized.

Subsurface Investigations
Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering Module I

FHWA-HI-97-021
November 1997

The planning, executing and interpreting the results of subsurface exploration of soil and rock for the design and construction of transportaion facilities are presented. The geotechnical engineer's role in subsurfce investigation, exploration methodologies, equipment types and their suitability to explore for various subsurface conditions and design requirements are discussed. The use of in situ testing and geophysical surveys for subgrade characterisation, proper handling, transportation and storage of soil and rock samples, as well as laboratory testing techniques to develop subsurface information is presented. Correlation of soil and rock properties, typical geotechnical reports, and subcontracting for soil and rock exploration are also discussed. Safety guidelines, health and safety procedures, and a list of equipment manufacturers are appended for further reference.

The Third Dimension of Planetary Exploration: Deep Subsurface Sampling

AIAA-2000-5301
September 2000

Strategic planning for the exploration of the Martian subsurface to search for evidence of life, sources of water, and to determine the geologic makeup and history of the plrme~ has begun. A mission to explore and sample the Martian subsurface hydrosphere, which may be 4-km deep, will be more complex than any mission accomplished to date. In order to reduce risk a phased approach is being planned with shallow and intermediate depth precursor missions. We researchers at Los Alarnos National Laboratory are conducting a conceptual system study of a 200-m intermediate-depth penetration and sampling mission on Mars. We constrained the study with a reasonable set of surface ‘andsubsurface environmental conditions and science requirements. Mission requirements include a 200-day duration, a soft lander which will fit within a Delta Ill payload fairing, a 250-kg drilling system mass limit and a maximum available energy for drilling of 1kW hr/sol. Existing and conceptual drilling technologies are compared, and the down-sekction process resuhs in mechanical drilhgkunpling subsystems that can be mixed to produce a number of specific systems that can be studied in more detail. Promising technology areas that need further investigation are identified.